The kinetics of metal oxide photoanodes from charge generation to catalysis

Generating charge carriers with lifetimes long enough to drive catalysis is a critical aspect for photoelectrochemical and photocatalytic systems, key determinant of their efficiency. Metal oxides are widely explored as photoanodes water oxidation. However, application limited by the disparity between picosecond–nanosecond electrons holes photoexcited in bulk metal versus millisecond–second timescale oxidation catalysis. This Review addresses charge-carrier dynamics underlying performance oxide ability oxidation, alongside comparison function electrocatalytic systems. We assess dominant kinetic processes determining photoanode performance, namely, generation, polaron formation trapping, surface recombination, separation extraction, and, finally, kinetics examine approaches enhance including material selection, doping, nanostructuring, junction and/or co-catalyst deposition. Crucially, we how such enhancements can be understood from analyses carrier propose design guidelines further or device optimization. used systems fuel synthesis environmental remediation. In this Review, challenges, generation catalysis, that determine photo(electro)catalysts.